SWOT Analysis of Apple Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

SWOT Analysis of Apple - Research Paper Example It could not be denied that this name has assisted them in becoming better pioneers of quality product and high-end service in the field of technological developments. As noted earlier in the discussion, Apple is a well-known brand worldwide. It is undeniable that this brand has naturally grown among the other brands that introduced high-end quality to the market. As an established brand, it could be observed that Apple Computer Corporation is already a well-known name in the industry that the market would likely be able to readily trust. (Carlton, 2000, 33) IT is also noticeable how the pioneering status of the organization was able to carry out its name in the field of global trade. Certainly, through this status, Apple has no problem penetrating any outside market besides the United States and the United Kingdom Territories. (Deutschmann, 2000, 43)From this particular fact, it could be observed that it is an essential asset of the corporation to take great concern of the fact that they were already able to establish the right kind of reputation for their carrier brand to make a great impact in the world market. Marketing the said brand to the worldwide number of target purchasers would become much easier to handle since the reputation of the organization has already been trusted within the global market. The proof for this fact had been continuously presented through the level of sales that the corporation annually makes worldwide. The level of profit that is set for the Weaknesses One particular mater that is serving as a weakness on the part of the business strategies adapted by Apple Corporation, as their primary asset against global competition, is that of loosing their contract with that of IBM and replacing their processor with Intel. This particular approach to change may cause a lot of troubles on the part of the confusion of the people as to what particular brand they are supposed to trust. Of course, both Intel and IBM have their own reputations in the industry. Over the years, there are some percentage of the major customers trusting Apple Computers simply because they trust IBM as a quality producer and distributor of processors. Hence, with the sudden change of provider, some of the customers may make different decisions when it comes to purchasing the products that they are offering today. OUTSOURCING is also one issue that may serve the Apple Corporation both the best and worst results of business. It could be noted that as the company began to outsource from China, India and Taiwan, the cost of expenses on the part of the company has decreased, giving them better chances of decreasing the rate of their products as offered to the market. However, it is also through this particular fact that some of the major clients of the organization may be lost simply upon knowing that the other parts of the gadgets distributed by the company was not made from the United States or UK. This situation cannot be controlled simply by saying that the works from other countries where the company outsourcers its programs and hardware parts from are of high-edge quality. Some consumers could not be robbed off from their belief on the brand and manufacturer that they trust. Opportunities With the growing number of technological gadgets released in the market every now and then, it could be

European Business and Policy Environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

European Business and Policy Environment - Essay Example Bitter lessons learnt from two world wars have forged strong bonds between nations like England, France, Spain, Portugal, Germany and Italy who not very long while ago had dangerous political, military and economic rivalries. Total dependence on technological features at the cost of well established traditional practices have however proved to be the bane of modern Europe. Excessive freedom and individual rights have eroded familial and social values, and their effects are felt in increasing number of disharmony and relationship breakdowns in marriages and personal lives. Europe's commitment to environmental issues, however, is laudable and her persistent efforts to address this issue not only in continental forums but also at international levels are bound to have salutary effects not only environmentally but also on world economy. Improved environment will also positively contribute to health issues and productivity. (EU sees green future for business) Environment issues and pollution are intrinsically linked to efficiency in the power sector, natural resources and waste management. These necessitate regulatory and monitoring bodies with wide ranging powers to coordinate, check, frame and update policies, provide guidelines, maintain tight leash to curb deviations, and penalize non-compliance. (EU Business) Europe's dependence on fossil fuel also figures on environmen... (EU Business) Europe's dependence on fossil fuel also figures on environmental problems making it very important to change over to alternative eco-friendly biomass fuel for environmental and economic reasons. (Georges Markatatos, 8/6/2006) The Impact of Sud Chemie on alternative sources of energy Headquartered in Munich, Germany, Sud Chemie Group is operational globally and its sound, in-depth acquaintance, knowledge and expertise in the field of conventional and non-conventional energy resources makes it critically important for the company to pioneer efforts on switching over to eco-friendly renewable energy resources. Sud Chemie's philosophy of sparing use of conventional energy and water give its products advantageous position on reduction of emission levels and thus bring down pollution levels through lower energy consumption and higher efficiency. (Sud Chemie) Currently, the high demand for fossil fuel and its cost of production and distribution is outweighing its adverse impact on environment and the abilities of the governments to introduce legislative reforms in the power and energy sectors. This factor is also dwarfing attempts by concerned lobbies to push for viable alternatives in the form of renewable energy sources. Eco-friendly renewable energy resources industry Currently, the cost of renewable energy consumption in Europe and elsewhere is very high as compared to fossil fuels. Therefore, the momentum for switching over to renewable sources such as biomass energy does not look encouraging for the moment and the foreseeable future. Research for development purposes of the renewable energies is disintegrated due to diversities in the availability and form of

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation

3COM FAST ETHERNET VS. GIGABIT ETHERNET COMPARISON :: essays research papers

ABSTRACT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this paper, we will conduct a comparison on Fast Ethernet Network Switches and Gigabit Ethernet Network Switches offered by 3COM. We will review a few specific components, as well as compare features, pricing and preferred usage. DEFINITION In order to have a greater understanding of the terminology and descriptions offered in this paper, we must first understand what a network switch is. A brief definition of a network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments. It uses the logic of a Network bridge, but allows a physical and logical star topology. It is often used to replace network hubs. A switch is also often referred to as an intelligent hub. A switch can be used to make various connections. Ethernet, Token Ring, and various other types of packet switched network segments together to form a heterogeneous network operating at OSI Layer 2. Traditional Ethernets, in which all hosts compete for the same bandwidth, are called shared Ethernets. Switched Ethernets are becoming very popular because they are an effective and convenient way to extend the bandwidth of existing Ethernets. PRODUCTS   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  3COM offers a wide variety of networking solutions. From Switches to Hubs to Gateways, 3COM is one of the frontrunners in the networking industry. In this comparison of Fast Ethernet Networks and Gigabit Ethernet Networks, before discussing the similarities with the various components and their respective operations, we must discuss the differences between the two.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fast Ethernet Network was developed as an upgrade to traditional Ethernet Networking. Fast Ethernet improved traditional Ethernet by increasing transfer rates 10 times, from 10 Megabit to 100 Megabit speed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gigabit Ethernet Network is an upgrade on Fast Ethernet Network equivalent to Fast Ethernet Networks improvement over Fast Ethernet Network, offering speeds of 1000 Megabits (1 Gigabit). Gigabit Ethernet was first made to travel over optical and copper cabling, but the 1000Base-T standard successfully supports it as well. 1000Base-T uses Category 5 cabling similar to 100 Mbps Ethernet, although achieving gigabit speed requires the use of additional wire pairs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Also, Gigabit Ethernet Networks can process Traditional, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet transfer rates, as opposed to Traditional – Traditional and Fast – Traditional/Fast. The products will be reviewed by cost as well as functionality, comparing components most closely related to one another.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  COMPONENTS 3COM OfficeConnect Dual Speed 5 Port Switch This switch is a member of 3COM’s OfficeConnect family of products. It is used primarily for small business and small offices.

Napoleon Bonaparte †Hero or Villain? Essay

Some men are born heroes while others earn the title after their death. Either way, a hero’s life and his achievements are cemented in the history of the world and become timeless. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) is known today as one of the most intelligent and skilled leaders to have ever lived. He is also known as a controversial figure, his reputation however is disputable as many criticize him for being brutal, selfish and delusional. A deeper study of his life and motives dictating it explains whether this accusation of his villainy is true or false. Military Successes His first actual military feat was in the Siege of Toulon, when he was the captain of the artillery, driving away the British naval and land forces. It was Napoleon’s ingenious plan to place the republican guns strategically atop a hill, in a manner that they could protect the city’s harbor and they would push the British ships out of the city. Napoleon at the ripe age of 24 was known henceforth as Brigadier General and was consequently given the artillery arm of France’s Army of Italy to lead. These events proved his ambitious and speedy progress on the military front and set a parable for time to come. (Asprey, 2000). In October 1975, he was given command of the forces at the Tuileries Palace where Napoleon had recently seen the massacre of the King’s Swiss Guard. He employed large cannons and used them to repel his enemy. The idea worked like magic, the streets were cleared in what is commonly known ‘a whiff of grapeshot’ as phrased by Thomas Carlyle in The French Revolution: A History. Napoleon had once again used his experience and devised an intelligent solution to hit the nail on the head. (Louis, 1998, p. 40) Bonaparte was to take command of the Army of Italy so he devised a plan that was entirely unpredictable. The man’s greatness and vision is reflected in how he could be so delicately tactful and roughly aggressive at the same time. First he overtook the Austrian forces at the Battle of Lodi. Then he went on towards the Papal States. The Directory advised him to conduct a march on Rome but as a man of reason would, Napoleon felt that would weaken the state and refused. In March 1797, Napoleon led the army into Austria which being defeated already decided to negotiate for peace in the Treaty of Leoben. The clauses of this Treaty were such that France got hold of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries. Seizing the opportunity to claim as much of the land as he could, he seemingly awarded Venice to Austria after which he marched into it, ending its 1,100 years of independence with a triumphant invasion. When viewed objectively and for its sheer innovation and creativity, Napoleon’s strategy leaves most people astounded and is certainly admirable. Not only does it take a thorough understanding of conventional military leadership, it also requires a fresh and bright mind to achieve this. Napoleon thus dedicatedly created for himself a reputation, cooking up military plots that his opponent could not often predict or prevent. (Asprey, 2000) Napoleon was one of a kind when it came to military tactics such as concealment, espionage, envelopment and surveillance. His talent was obvious with the numerous battles he fought and won in a very short span of time. That and the rising popularity inspired him to prepare for invading England which had vast trading interests in India at that time (Louis, 1998). He had a developing interest in the Middle East, and had the foresight to realize that joining hands with a figure like Tipu Sultan would be Britain’s Achilles Heel. Napoleon told the Directory ‘as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions. ’ (Asprey, 2000, p. 26) Bonaparte sketched out the Constitution of the Year VIII on becoming First Consul and was soon known as the most powerful person in the country. In 1804, he formalized this status by crowning himself Emperor. Following this in 1805 he was crowned King of Italy too. Even at this exhilarating point in his life, Bonaparte with his quick thinking decided to promote his top generals to ‘Marshals of the Empire’, ensuring their loyalty to him for times to come. He did not take his success for granted. (Louis, 1998, p. 11). One of the most frequently discussed events of that time was the Battle at Austerlitz where, on the first anniversary of his coronation, Napoleon defeated Austria and Russia together. Following this, Austria signed the Peace of Pressburg after which Napoleon was named the Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine (Moore, 1999). Austria had to also give up its land and Napoleon termed Austerlitz as one of his finest battles (Louis, 1998). Critics argue that at such a prime time in his life, Napoleon lost touch with reality and as Frank McLynn expressed ‘what used to be French foreign policy’ became a ‘personal Napoleonic one’. ’ On the contrary, it seems few remember that the man had noble intentions. Vincent Cronin stated Napoleon was not overly ambitious for himself, that â€Å"he embodied the ambitions of thirty million Frenchmen†. (Moore, 1999, p. 2). One such example of Napoleon’s exceptional foresight and vast vision is that even after a failure to capture Egypt; he pursued his desire to secure a place in the Middle East. His insight that an alliance in that region would give the French the power to pressurize Russia from the South was brilliant. He worked hard to convince the Ottomans to join hands with him against Russia. He gave them incentives like they would regain lost territories and in 1806 Selim III called France a ‘sincere and natural ally’ ready to form an alliance. Following this feat, the Persian Empire of Fateh Ali Shah also formed the Franco-Persian Alliance in 1807 (Asprey, 2000, p. 23). Personal skill – the exemplary hero Napoleon’s biggest and most undeniable influence has been in warfare – his methods are now referred to as ‘Napoleonic warfare’. The influential military theorist Carl von Clausewitz describes him as a genius in the operational art of war. Wellington, when asked who was the greatest general of the day, answered: â€Å"In this age, in past ages, in any age, Napoleon. † (Moore, 1999, p. 1). Napoleon was always head first into the battle scene. This not only motivated his soldiers and collegues, it also helped set high standards of dedication and passion on the field. In battles like Montenotte, Mondovi, Arcola and Rivoli, Napolean set great examples often getting wounded himself. He also kept soldiers going by promising those rewards and incentives. (Louis, 1998). ‘Napoleon suffered various military setbacks however: at Leipzig in 1813, in Russia in 1812, and arguably at Aspern-Essling in 1809. He also had to abandon his forces in Egypt’. Despite the blows he suffered and felt responsible for subjecting his country to, Napoleon was always quick to get back on his feet. His resilient spirit as a fighter lives as an example for all those who search for the determination to achieve high goals. (Asprey, 2000, p. 38). Napoleon’s Strong Foundation Initially, Napoleon had a good opportunity to study and it was because of his dignified and prosperous family background and the strong ties among them. It laid the foundation, and gave him a chance to learn French at a religious school in Autun and later got him to enroll into a military academy at Brienne-le-Chateau. An examiner his exceptional aptitude in mathematics, history and geography, all of which helped him excel in the battlefield. The potentials map of the world, a desire to change history and the mathematical grid with which to arrange troops for an invasion – the seeds were sown for a new vision of the French Empire (Louis, 1998). Napoleon and other Heroic Achievements Not only was he a keen military man, his humane and artistic side too was alive and kicking. Bonaparte published two newspapers, which were apparently for troops but most of France was reading them under that cover. He also started Le Journal de Bonaparte et des hommes vertueux, a newspaper to be published in Paris, increasing his influence on the political front in the country. 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences, his Egyptian group discovered the Rosetta Stone and their work was published in the Description de l’Egypte (Asprey, 2000). Bonaparte was the one to initiate centralized administration, higher education, tax codes, road and sewer systems and the country’s central bank (Louis, 1998). He bargained for the Concordat of 1801 with the Catholic Church, which inviting the Catholic population towards himself as he regulated public worship. In 1802, he instituted what is today the highest tribute in France in both military and civilian achievements, the Legion d’Honneur. These won him public support and high regard, and served as a bible for time to come. Multi talented and as much a man of reason as he was of force, Napoleon’s also created the famous Napoleonic code—was an enormous stepping stone in the nature of the civil law and legal systems promoting lucid and accessible laws. In his own words â€Å"My true glory is not to have won 40 battles†¦ Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories. †¦ But†¦ what will live forever is my Civil Code. † (Louis, 1998, p. 51). Correctly so, the Civil Code has immense significance, used in over a quarter of the world’s jurisdictions including Europe, the Americas and Africa. It encouraged civilians to own property without fear and helped fight the plague of feudalism. Among his other achievements, Napoleon emancipated Jews from laws which restricted them to ghettos, and helped them win their rights to proper worship places, and work placed. In exile, in the first few months on Elba he created a small navy and army, developed the iron mines, and reformed and renovated the agricultural systems according to modern ways. He was not only known for ruling loud and mighty but had a much more humane and thoughtful side to him, his vision extended much beyond the war field (Louis, 1998). The Decline The Russians were defeated in a series of battles and Napoleon resumed his advance. But the harsh climatic conditions made the advance a fierce challenge. The Battle of Borodino resulted in approximately 44,000 Russian and 35,000 French, dead, wounded or captured, and may have been the bloodiest day of battle in history up to that point in time. In Napoleon’s own words was: â€Å"The most terrible of all my battles was the one before Moscow. The French showed themselves to be worthy of victory, but the Russians showed themselves worthy of being invincible. † The French suffered greatly in the course of a ruinous retreat, begun as over 400,000 frontline troops, but in the end fewer than 40,000. (Asprey, 2000, p. 28). Napoleon won a series of battles in the Six Days Campaign, but could not sustain control in Paris which was captured by the Coalition in 1814. The Allies eventually forced Napoleon to abdicate. He escaped but was intercepted soon. When confronted by a regiment, Napoleon approached them and shouted, â€Å"Here I am. Kill your Emperor, if you wish. † The soldiers, with hidden awe and admiration for him replied with, â€Å"Vive L’Empereur! † and marched with Napoleon to Paris; another example of the respect Napoleon received from those who knew his strengths and forgave his weaknesses. (Asprey, 2000, p. 64). Conclusion Many ideas demean the man’s reputation today. There is a term called the Napoleon Complex which indicates aggressive behavior of a person who lacks height. (Moore, 1999). He reinstated slavery in French colonies, encouraged looting and often sought to solve problems with brute force rather than by deliberation. His attack on Jaffa was brutal: innocent men, women and children lost their lives sometimes to save bullets, supplies and at other times because they were suffering from the bubonic plague and were a burden. In 1920 he re-established slavery in France’s colonial possessions. (Asprey, 2000). Critics feel that the brutalities committed during his reign are unforgivable and were entirely unavoidable. However there are those like Vincent Cronin who felt that Napoleon was not ‘responsible for the wars which bear his name, when in fact France was the victim of a series of coalitions which aimed to destroy the ideals of the Revolution’. His was the rule that ended lawlessness in France after the revolution (Louis, 1998). A hero lives as an example to people to believe in good and strive to achieve it. A hero dies to live on in their minds as a proof of what the human spirit is capable of if the heart is set on it. Today International Napoleonic Congresses are held in which scholars and politicians meet to discuss matters of world wide significance. An icon of ‘military genius and political power’, Napoleon is used to name products, places and characters, all of which speak of his outstanding skills and innumerable successes (Moore, 1999). American journalist Chuck Palahniuk says ‘We all die. The goal isn’t to live forever; the goal is to create something that will’. Napoleon has emerged a hero, through what he created – an undying inspiration for great leadership, superb administration, unending determination, ruthless loyalty and masterful skills leading to eternal triumph (Louis, 1998, p. 66). He is remembered today in all historical publications as a courageous and able soldier, a man whose tact, craft and vision extended much beyond others. His name has come to symbolize a soldier’s epitome, a leader’s aspiration. His flaws may be many and will remain attached to his exalted but very human condition. As Alexander Pope puts it, ‘To err is human, to forgive is Divine. ’ It is not everyday one finds a story so moving and as passionate as one of Napoleon Bonaparte. A man fuelled with a ferocious desire to be victorious only to see a victorious France. 1799. Napoleon was laid to rest in May 1821 after fighting with persistent ill health. His last words were ‘France, army, head of the army, Josephine’ which he spoke in French (Louis, 1998, p115). There was no doubt that in his dying moments as his life flashed before him, he expressed what was dearest to him, and in it was his first and deepest love – France. Those who judge him for being self absorbed would think again. He was initially buried in St. Helena but later shifted to Seine as he had requested in his will. He was given a state funeral, respects to a man who was a hero of his time, albeit with inevitable human flaws. (Asprey, 2000). References Books B. Asprey, Robert. (2000). The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. First Edition. New York: Basic Books. Fauvelet de Bourrienne Louis, Antoine. (1998). Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte. Constables Miscellant – Original and Selected Publishing. Websites Richard Moore. (1999). Napolean Guide. May 26, 2010, from www. napoleonguide. com.

The Post Human Architectural Body

The PostHuman Architectural Body Visible Hope for the Invisible Re-birth This pronunciamento is a verbal articulation of the airy theory of how the human organic structure, architecture, and creativeness define and prolong one another: It’s an analysis of this radical work by creative persons and designers who want to show the inter-connectedness of advanced architectural design, the poetic procedure, and their philosophical enquiry. It’s the relationship between architecture and the human organic structure. It’s the development of the analogy of the human organic structure and its extrapolation. By prosecuting with the station homo we are constructing on the cardinal measure based on architecture and theory, we are making this analogy between the human organic structure and the architectural being. Some may inquire â€Å"Why is the human organic structure so of import as a mention and a criterion for architecture? † Because the human organic structure it is meant to be a creative activity coming out of imitation of God. The perfect proportions and dimensions should be the contemplation of God’s perfectionism. Perfection of creative activity, flawlessness of nature. Worlds aim is to go such a Godhead as good, as perfect, as God. We might no longer mention to god when it comes to the human organic structure, and at the same clip the architectural organic structure itself, but we still refer to nature, because seemingly worlds can non make something from abrasion, so we use nature, as we still believe that there is batch to larn from naturel. To understand the mechanics of nature, how flowers, organic structures, animate beings work. Nature is still there for us as a large criterion for us to copy to imitate, to larn from, ever through scientific find. Even though th e concluding purpose as human existences is to get the better of nature, we ever base what we do or larn upon nature. We start from this analogy, from the flawlessness of the organic structure as an being and hence the flawlessness of architecture as a contemplation of this relationship to discourse how this relationship is disrupted. In the first topographic point because of the organic structure is disrupted through something occurrence, in this instance through technology’s abuse and maltreatment. What it implied in this undertaking is that in first topographic point the merchandise from now on is non good. Although the thought was that engineering was supposed to supply a merchandise that’s perfect, now we come to see that it’s non. We deconstructed the thought of advancement to see what is incorrect with this advancement. How advancement is impacting back the flawlessness of the organic structure or is impacting back this analogy of the organic structure and architecture? The â€Å"Post human† is about this analysis. Deconstructing the thought of ruling the universe through the thought of eternal additive patterned advance towards the hereafter, because it’s already change by reversaling upon itself. Puting into inquiry even the really rudimentss in architecture which is the analogy of the organic structure. The edifice is supposed to be a perfect integrating of circulation and map. If we are non perfect so why should we construct perfect edifices, perfect universes, for what? For perfect human existences that DO NOT exists? Possibly we need an imperfect universe to suit the imperfectness of what we going to be. These are the philosophical deductions discussed, researched and analyzed within this thesis undertaking. A cogent evidence that architecture is non merely a precipitate of applications taken from another field, but an rational subject look intoing the really kernel of human existences. Who we are, what we will go. Thehistory of architecturetraces the alterations inarchitecturethrough assorted traditions, parts, overarching stylistic tendencies, and day of the months. Time periods and manners flow together, sometimes unifying contradictory thoughts, sometimes contriving new attacks, and frequently re-awakening and re-inventing older motions. Dates are ever approximative: Architecture is a unstable art. Analyzing architecture requires a comprehensive position of the edifice, which is analyzing its historical, spiritual, societal, and functional facets ; for beyond utile intents the building of edifices reflects the scientific, spiritual, societal and philosophical worldview of each period. This is merely an branch of the doctrine of the times, which believed that scientific discipline would repair all the wrongs of the universe. The modern motion celebrated these new engineerings, stressing the simpleness, efficiency and velocity of them. There is ever more information about modern-day civilizations and architectural manners than historical 1s, nevertheless, without critical clip to distance oneself from the present province of personal businesss it is ever difficult to state what the nature of the present truly is. As such, it is of import to maintain an unfastened head – peculiarly about recent developments – and ever see the possibility of radically different hereafter positions. A repetition phenomenon in the history of architecture every bit good as in the history of art is the oscillation between antonyms: betweenrationalismand emotion, the imitation of nature and its absence, ornament andpure signifiers. The intent is to interrupt the built-in structural association among degrees of senses in the organic structure, to foreground the basic function of â€Å" organic structure † in acknowledgment of the universe, and to supply a theoretical footing for the displacement of focal point in architecture from the anomic position of pure ocular public presentation to human organic structure ‘s experiences. Furthermore, it besides opens up a new skyline for the invention with mention to the organic structure ‘s experiences and alterations. This normative organic structure is non an ideal organic structure based on T aesthetic merely values as it does non qualify anybody’s specific organic structure but to a certain extent composes an unapproachable province of regularity. Architecture it is measured within the instant frame of human patterned advance and, it is designed in order to pull strings such an development. In fact, the normative doctrine by taking an idyllic organic structure as an illustration, opposes the thought of the human development. This is precisely where the Post human organic structure comes into treatment, as the following measure of development. Posthuman epoch is already upon us, we are cyborgs: â€Å"not in the simply superficial sense of uniting flesh and wires, but in the more profound sense of being human-technology symbiots: thought and concluding systems whose heads and egos are spread across biological encephalon and non-biological systems† we will co-evolutionate in a future to a great extent populated with unreal agents. We are on a way to altering our genome in profound ways. Extreme human sweetening could ensue in â€Å"posthuman† manners of being. Posthumanism chiefly differentiates from classical humanitarianism in that it restores the stature that had been made of humanity to one of many natural species. Harmonizing to this claim, worlds have no built-in rights to destruct nature or put themselves above it in ethical considerations a priori. Human cognition is besides reduced to a less controlling place, antecedently seen as the specifying facet of the universe. The restrictions and fallibility of human intelligence are confessed, even though it does non connote abandoning the rational tradition of humanitarianism. Posthumanism has a much stronger critical border trying to develop through enactment new apprehensions of the ego and other, kernel, consciousness, intelligence, ground, bureau, familiarity, life, incarnation, individuality and the organic structure. The undertaking seeks to inquiry and research the function of the physical built environment as we move towards what is likely to go an progressively non-physical age. The undertaking explores the relationship between our architectural environments and the dichotomy of the head and organic structure that experiences them ; a inquiry which is peculiarly pertinent in the current epoch where we already inhabit multiple worlds and project our sense of ego into practical environments ; busying multiple locations at the same time through disembodied presence. The end is making a new and better universe through a centrally imposed vision. The human desire to get new capacities is every bit ancient as our species itself. We have ever sought to spread out the boundaries of our being, be it socially, geographically, or mentally. There is a inclination in at least some persons ever to seek for a manner around every obstruction and restriction to human life and felicity. The architecture that we besides consume in a province of indifference, seldom gives us such esthesiss. We therefore need to bring forth a sort of architecture that forces us non much to look up to it from afar, but instead to be engaged with our organic structures, with all our senses. It could, by ask foring us to allow us travel, take our breath off, ensnare us, and drama with our emotions. More significantly, architecture demands to dispute those who approach the architectural object and are about to entree it non merely through their sight, at a distance, but with their ain organic structure. In the postwar epoch, many optimistic futurists who had become leery of jointly orchestrated societal alteration found a new place for their hopes in scientific and technological advancement. Space travel, medical specialty, and computing machines seemed to offer a way to a better universe. The displacement of attending besides reflected the breathtaking gait of development in these Fieldss. Science had begun to catch up with guess. Writers such as Arthur C. Clarke, Isaac Asimov, Robert Heinlein, and Stanislaw Lem explored how technological development could come to deeply change the human status. Although presently a scientific discipline fiction, we – the human race – are on the cusp of human familial technology. Worlds have altered the genomes of species for 1000s of old ages through unreal choice. Over the past 40 old ages scientists have made astonishing technological advancement to better nature’s harvests and mammals through familial alterations ; but at the same clip the opposite occurred every bit good. This engineering did non merely improved the human race but made it worst or made it different, alteration it To modify nature is our nature. In believing through the development of the undertaking I set up a narrative that ties into future aspirations of the metropolis [ Kiev ] , post-human hereafters, and biotechnical amalgamations. The undertaking is trying to accomplish an architecture which would put on climaxing from the amalgamation of biological science and engineering where body/building and biology/technology prostration. Following the development of the staging and the procedures which would take to its building, the programmatic variety meats will be discussed in more item every bit good as its relationship to the human and ecology. The site becomes a dataspace as information within the bing context near the site is recorded and processed leting simulations to be projected in real-time through the ambiance. The site chosen is Kiev-Ukraine, a site with a strong yesteryear, a site that is presently traveling through war, a site which suffered a batch but still manages to maintain its beauty through its agony. The thought is to go to the hereafter. By holding Post-humanism as methodological analysis and construct, I researched and analyzed a site that experienced radiation onslaughts ( Chernobyl ) and War. How the site got over all these and how it looks now ( even how it will in the hereafter ) with the influence of post-humanity and trans-humanism, but most significantly with the influence of human/technology breaks. As human existences drew farther off from the physical they dropped out for a digitally enhanced being. Bodies become non bred but built. Organs, limbs, and memories all replaced, manipulated and hijacked as they faded. A post-human being will be created as organic structure and civilization no longer are recognizable from their ascendant opposite numbers. As human life is prolonged through the replacing of neglecting organic structure parts, alteration is non optional. Peoples begin to populate above the one time vivacious metropoliss in cods that grew like viruses across the metropolis to maintain up with the demand of those willingly stop uping into a web where they could experience a greater connexion with the multitudes plugged in. My work trades with the Ukrainian human status throughout the epoch of my site and the hunt for the roots of what changes the human status in every human being that lived at that place. To understand that alteration, I had to understand what causes it and accept it. The Post-human Body undertaking starts with one of the smallest elements of the human organic structure ; its Deoxyribonucleic acid and in the concluding chapter it reaches the infinite alteration. I progressively felt like a scientist gazing through his microscope, whizzing in closer and closer to bring out the truth and to understand it. This undertaking is sub-divided into 5 chapters. As mentioned above, the first chapter focuses on the Deoxyribonucleic acid and its familial memory. The latter is linked to our hereditary memory. The experiences and memories of our ascendants are hidden in our Deoxyribonucleic acid and now and so they surface in our dreams and real-life minutes. The 2nd chapter focuses on the great metabolisms. Throughout our lives, from the really get downing until we die, we are exposed to exterior influences that continuously shape us into the human existences we are. Choice is an of import factor here, as we can make up one's mind what is good or evil, on what we expose ourselves and what non ( mentally and physically ) , but our milieus can act upon us and our judgement greatly so the boundary between the two becomes diffuse. The following subdivision, chapter 3, has more focal point on the organic structure as a whole than on its Deoxyribonucleic acid. Basically our physical and mental signifiers are two separate universes that merge in this world. Our organic structures are nil more than bubbles of tegument, musculus, bone, variety meats, blood, DNA, etc. Chapter 3 purposes to research profoundly the organic structure from a bantam cell to the whole mass that makes it a organic structure. The 4th chapter focuses on society and faith. Society plays a major function in how we see world and it transforms and shifts the boundary between alterations in the universe and environment we live within every bit good as frequently overcasting our judgement. Greed and control of the multitudes are evidently powerful enticements. But â€Å" alteration † is non ever acceptable by our society and the faith. What makes an visual aspect, a fragment psyche or organic structure, a changed homo being – accepta ble in a society! Who identifies and controls what the word â€Å" Acceptable † stands for. And in conclusion, in the fifth and concluding chapter, we view the hereafter of the human signifier, from outer infinite. Here I strive to go forth the earthly signifier behind and visualise transcendency into something more abstract and beyond human. Making the new â€Å" alteration † and taking it a measure frontward, for the new universe that is about to populate, for the new universe that needs to accept the new changed beauty. Page | 1